Divine Wind - Racism Essay -- essays research papers

The Divine Wind depicts an Australia that is discolored by prejudice, disdain and doubt, but then the novel finishes on a hopeful note. Do you concur? The epic is set during a World War. The pressure and partition of races during a war appeared to be apparent in Australia. As a multicultural nation including Japanese and Aborigine populace, clashing perspectives towards these races must be inevitable. I totally concur with the above articulation because of the inconsistent treatment of the natives, pressure between the Japanese populace and characters, for example, Hart indicating absence of trust over his sweetheart Mitsy With a war against the Japanese was the trigger for bigotry in Australia. All through the novel components of partition are introduced. The Japanese are fairly isolated from white Australians. As a matter of first importance Broome has a â€Å"Register of Aliens†, this was a register or rundown that monitored outside individuals. This inferred outsiders were viewed as outsiders and that they didn’t truly have a place in Australia. The Sennosukes’ names must be changed in light of the fact that their unique names appeared â€Å"†¦too unfamiliar to our ears.† The Japanese living territory is Chinatown shows the peruser that maybe whites have placed the Japanese into their own little region. Chinatown contains houses that are far littler and when all is said in done with little fortunes dissimilar to the white Australians. It is the wide disposition towards the Japanese that makes a war and unendingly slaughters Alice. Natives are dealt with inconsistent and are downsized in Broo...

The Effects of Television Violence on America Essay -- essays research

America has the most elevated crime percentage on the planet. Alongside that crime percentage is likewise the extremely high brutality rate. For what reason is brutality turning out to be and regular occasion in our general public? At the point when you flip on the TV and tune into the news, the feature of each show is some way or another legitimately related or associated with brutality. We see it each night and maybe state Goodness my gosh and afterward disregard it two minutes after the fact. Or then again maybe we don't offer any remarks whatsoever, only a straightforward snort or â€Å"Oh, how terrible†. This deadness to viciousness is unnerving and genuine. It makes you heedless to the reality, that America has the most wrongdoing and viciousness. Why not Switzerland or Australia? Is it true that we are not as edified and progressed as they seem to be? I trust it is this deadness to brutality that has made America such a savage spot. At the point when I recall my youth and recollect TV I observed such projects as Sesame Street, Mr.Rogers, and Scooby - Doo. I don't have anything yet wonderful recollections loaded up with joy, harmony, comprehension, and learning. At the point when you watch kids' projects today you see silly savagery frequently as the primary methods for taking care of an issue. The exemplary perspective on great versus malicious is the premise of a considerable lot of these shows, with savagery as the appropriate response. At the point when youngsters watch these projects they regularly imiatate the activities and ethics of these characters. Kids don't have a clue what great or wickedness truly is, by what method can they? This world isn't broken into acceptable and insidious. Malicious to youngsters is the thing that restricts them, what doesn't concur with them, or some other individual or thing that represents a potential trouble. Kids must be instructed that there are contrasts in this world. This world is loaded up with numerous individuals ho... ...tion to this issue is restriction. Oversight not at the administrative level, nor at the state level, nor at the link organization level, rather at the degree of the guardians. They and only they are the ones who need to choose what is best for their kids. At the point when I was a youngster my mom was consistently there to mention to me what I could and couldn't watch. Obviously when I was littler I detested it, yet since I am more seasoned and a mother myself, I am so appreciative and grateful that my mom edited what was taken care of into my mind. As guardians I accept that we are exclusively answerable for what demonstrate we permit to be found in our families. We need to assume the liability of blue penciling what is taken care of into the brains of our youngsters. What's more, if montoring doesn’t resolve the issue of what is seen by our kids we can generally do what Peter Goddard said â€Å"You can kill the damn thing, you know.†

Good Argument Essay Topics

Good Argument Essay TopicsGood argument essay topics do not seem to be that hard to come up with. It is true that there are no rules on this as all topics are up to the individual. When you have decided on the topic, it is time to start writing. There are some rules you should follow when you write an argument essay.First of all, you should know the subject matter very well, so it is best if you make your own research. The topic you choose to write on must be something that you have knowledge about, and something that will make sense to your readers. Remember, if it does not make sense to them, they might not be able to connect the arguments that you make.A good way to convince a reader to accept or reject your point of view is to present an example. If you would like to present an example in your essay, make sure that you choose a specific example, and be precise with what you state. You do not want to just pass around general statements without anything to back it up.A good example can do a lot to convince someone to go one way or another. It can even help in narrowing down the debate or to choose one path or another. In addition, giving examples can help get people to focus on a single topic or to remember it for later reference.Using the example can make it easier for a person to understand the subject and apply it to a difficult situation. This is especially useful in science or math subjects. It is also a good way to prove concepts that have been explained in a lecture.If you cannot think of different ways to present an example, use words from your source to describe the situation. Use your own emotions to get a better understanding of what you are trying to say. Having something to compare to can be a good idea as it gives you a basis for the comparison, and also to draw your reader's attention.An example in the paper is a good way to demonstrate ideas that are written down. This is the best way to 'show' a topic. If you want to demonstrate your ideas, t ry to show the connection between ideas, and to get the reader to learn from your examples.To find good argument essay topics, use your imagination and think about what you know. Give examples, and connect your facts with your statement. You should always remember that your topic has to make sense to the reader, and be able to connect your ideas and argument to others.

Nature Vs. Nurture The Strongest Debates That Raises...

Nature v.s. Nurture is one of the strongest debates that raises strong arguments from different viewpoints. In this essay i will describe whether nature or nurture had an impact on who i am today in this society . I grew up in a well common known place called New York City , but where i lived the only bright lights where cop cars , and the spectacular sounds were ambulances racing to save a human being’s life , and the scenes were not something you would like to see in a Broadway play; they were far from pleasant , but surprisingly this was just an average day for me in the Bronx . I grew up around a lot of female figures around the time period i lived in New York City , Then i relocated with my Grandmother in Lumberton , North Carolina where i had a very hard time making friends in the 3rd grade throughout dome of Junior high being that , i was from New York City and mixed with cherokee and seminole indian gave me on automatic strike not to mention the lowest EOG(End of Grade) scores for my grade . I began to become homesick and longed to see my mother for which i only had the chance to see on certain holidays and or vacations which were 3-5 times a year . Fast forwarding i began to join clubs at school , and make some new friends and raised my scale popularity from a 0 to a 7 in a matter of months . i began to then be social , and more open and kind; as well as an open book , i could pour my whole life story out to after meeting you 5 minutes prior. CloserShow MoreRelatedOrganisational Theory230255 Words   |  922 Pageschallenging subject. 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Inspirational Quotations for Adult Students

Trifles by Susan Glaspell Essay - 610 Words

Trifles by Susan Glaspell Susan Glaspellss Trifles is a little gem of a play. In one short act, the playwright presents the audience with a complex human drama leaving us with a haunting question. Did an abused Nebraska farm wife murder her husband? Through the clever use of clues and the incriminating dialogue of the two main characters, this murder mystery unfolds into a psychological masterpiece of enormous proportions. Written in 1916, the play deals with the theme of the roles of women in society. This was a time before women had the right to vote or sit on juries. Shortly after writing the play, Glaspell wrote it as a short story entitled A Jury of Her Peers. The scene is set in†¦show more content†¦They tell the audience a great deal about the home life and mental state of Mrs. Wright. The house didnt have a telephone because when Mr. Hale asked if Mr. Wright would want to join him in paying for a party line, Wrights reply was folks talk too much anyway and all he wanted was peace and quiet. When Mr. Hale found Mrs. Wright, she was sitting in her rocking chair looking queer, as if she didnt know what she was going to do next. Hale then went upstairs and discovered Wrights body lying in bed, a rope tied around his neck. Wright had been strangled. The pieces of evidence found in the kitchen by the women paint a picture of a desperate woman who had suffered mental and perhaps physical abuse at the hands of her cruel husband for 30 years. Jars of cherries that Mrs. Wright had preserved were found broken and the women assume it is because of the cold. A roller towel was found dirty, dirty pots under the sink, and a loaf of bread on the table was left to go stale. Mrs. Hale doesnt think Minnie Wright did it because Minnie is still concerned about the household things. She wondered how a person could be strangled without waking up or wakening someone in bed with him. The women find a quilt that Mrs. Wright had been working on and the last stitches are uneven and Mrs. Hale pulls them out. Mrs. Peters finds a birdcage with a broken door hinge that looked as if someone hadShow MoreRelatedTrifles, By Susan Glaspell Essay2136 Words   |  9 Pagesprimarily of a domestic nature. Trifles by Susan Glaspell indicates that a man’s perspective is entirely different from a woman’s. The one-act play, Trifles, is a murder mystery which examines the lives of rural, middle-aged, married, women characters through gender relationships, power between the sexes, and the nature of truth. The play, written in the early 1900s, long before the women’s movement and while men considered women their possessions. 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Communication Barriers in an Ornanization-Free-Samples-Myassignment

Question: Briefly describe a situation in which you have felt misunderstood or people failed to act on your Communication as directed. What, in your opinion, went wrong? Answer: The Situation A few days back I went the grocer and bought some items. I had to deliver some items to my mother`s place which is on the other side of the town. Therefore, I purchased the grocery items and took a single bill. However, I requested the shopkeeper to deliver certain items in the list to my mother`s house and some items to mine. I wrote both the addresses and went to attend my classes. When I reached home I saw the that the items to be delivered at my place were not all I wanted and those delivered at my mother`s place were also not as per my instructions Hence, the shopkeeper failed to take an action as per my communication. Issues in the situation with respect to communication: Using Berlo`s Model (Eunson 2012), I will identify the problems in my communication with the shopkeeper. When I visited the shopkeeper, it was during the evening on a weekday where the crowd of customers is large. I informed him about the delivery and left the bill under the packets in the cart. I personally believe that he must have faced a problem looking for the bill and this might be a reason why he delivered the wrong items. Using the model as developed by Berlo, the sender has some parameters to cross while communicating; he edits the message, encodes it and then transmits it to the opposite party. In the same manner due to some confusion, I scratched some of the items and ticked them again. Therefore making the message unclear. When I transferred the message to the shopkeeper, he did not consider asking for clarifications to help him decode it properly. Due to the noise and rush in the store, there was some miscommunication between the shopkeeper and me due to which the wrong items were delivered at the wrong places. Therefore the channel of communication was incorrect too as I did not make it clear for him what items had to be delivered. The shopkeeper belonged to a different culture from mine and thus there was a difference in our accents, which might have also leaded to the miscommunication Major issues Noise- As there was a rush at the store, it is possible that during the noise barrier, my message did not get conveyed clearly to the shopkeeper Channel- The channel of communication which is the list I prepared for the shopkeeper, marking the items which had to be delivered at two different places was not clear and thus the channel via which we communicated was not transparent Encoding- I failed to encode the message and help the transfer of information. Had I encoded my message clearly for the user (Bovee, Thill and Raina 2016); I would have been able to transmit a clear message. Decoding- The shopkeeper is also at fault in this communication as he could not decode the message clearly. If he needed and clarifications, he should have provided with some feedback so that the message that was transmitted was clear. (Refer to Figure.1 in the appendix.) Barriers to Communication The use of jargon terms, which means the use of over-complicated and unfamiliar terms. Emotional barriers- Many people very often face certain difficulties to express their emotions, certain topics may often be off-limits, and therefore they cannot express themselves very clearly (Bovee and Thill 2012). These `off-limits` topics may include sexuality, sex, religion and politics. Lack of interest or distractions may also result as a barrier to the communication. Many a times they viewpoint or the perception of people may differ from one another which then tends to create communication barriers (Brink and Costigan 2015). Physical disabilities also play a role in becoming a barrier to communication. These disabilities may include hearing problems and difficulties in speech. Physical barriers to non-verbal communication include barriers like not being able to view the gestures, posture and general body language, which tends to make a communication difficult and less effective. Relying on technology like phone calls, text messages and other communication methods are often not effective (Guffey and Loewy 2012). Very often language and unfamiliar accent also play the barrier`s role. Cultural differences also tend to play a major role in becoming a barrier to communication. Strategies to overcome communication barriers To deal with communication barriers and issues there are certain strategies that can be adopted to result in an effective communication. These strategies are as follows: Listening properly- It is very important to be a listener in a conversation. One needs to understand what the other says and should be able to listen what is not said at all. Very often people just listen to answer; however, the aim should be to listen to understand (McQuail and Windahl 2015). Hence, the first strategy for improving communication skills includes listening properly. Avoiding the use of complicated terms also known as jargon. Communication must be kept as simple as possible. Not everyone understands the abbreviations and short forms. Everyone is not equally learned and thus one should not use complicated technical terms in his or her conversation. However, in my situation, this was not the case, my handwriting or the use of abbreviations must have lead to the misunderstanding. Keeping an open mind and speaking in clear terms- One should not be judgmental and draw conclusions immediately (Alberts, Nakayama and Martin 2015). A person should get into the other`s show and understand their side of the story thereby make the communication a success. One needs to keep in mind the background of the other person before agreeing or disagreeing. One should also be clear when communicating. They should not pass ambiguous comments or speak in a tone or a voice level that others may find it difficult to understand. Awareness about cultural differences-People belongs from difficult backgrounds and cultures therefore a person must consider one another and be sensitive so that the communication is clear and not misunderstood (Hutchinson 2013). Conclusion Therefore, from the discussion it can be stated that communication is an exchange between two people, which needs to be clear, fast and honest. The parties, which are involved in a communication process, are both equally responsible for the success of the communication. References Alberts, J.K., Nakayama, T.K. and Martin, J.N., 2015,Human communication in society. Pearson. Bovee, C.L. and Thill, J.V., 2012,Excellence in business communication. Pearson Higher Ed. Bovee, C.L., Thill, J.V. and Raina, R.L., 2016,Business communication today. Pearson Education India. Brink, K.E. and Costigan, R.D., 2015. Oral communication skills: Are the priorities of the workplace and AACSB-accredited business programs aligned?Academy of Management Learning Education,Vol. 14 No. 2, pp.205-221. Chaney, L. and Martin, J., 2013,Intercultural business communication. Pearson Higher Ed. Eunson, B., 2012,Communicating in the 21st Century, Google eBook. John Wiley Sons. Guffey, M.E. and Loewy, D., 2012,Essentials of business communication. Cengage Learning. Hutchinson, J., 2013, Communication models of institutional online communities: the role of the ABC cultural intermediary.Platform,Vol. 5 No. 1, pp.75-85. McQuail, D. and Windahl, S., 2015,Communication models for the study of mass communications. Routledge.

Learning from Ojt Essay Example

Learning from Ojt Essay ON-THE-JOB TRAINING AT HOME DEVELOPMENT MUTUAL FUNDS (PAG-IBIG FUND) In Partial fulfillment of the Requirements for Bachelor of Science in Information Technology Submitted by: Arce P. Baldonado Submitted to Ms. Ruth Bongales March 2013 Table Of Contents II. Background of the Company III. Summary of the OJT Experience IV. Assessment of the OJT/Practicum Program A. New knowledge, attitudes and skills acquired B. Theories actually seen in practice C. Feedback that can be given to the company or institution D. Benefits gained E. Problems Encountered V. Appendices A. Company brochure B. Copy of the Endorsement Letter C. Copy of the Training Plan D. Copy of the Signed Waiver form E. Daily Time Record F. Quarterly Performance Appraisal Forms G. Certificate of Completion II. Background of the Company The birth of the Home Development Mutual Fund (HDMF) The birth of the Home Development Mutual Fund (HDMF), more popularly known as the Pag- IBIG Fund, was an answer to the need for a national savings program and an affordable shelter financing for the Filipino worker. The Fund was established on 11 June 1978 by virtue of Presidential Decree No. 1530 primarily to address these two basic yet equally important needs. We will write a custom essay sample on Learning from Ojt specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Learning from Ojt specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Learning from Ojt specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Under the said law, there were two agencies that administered the Fund. The Social Security System handled the funds of private employees, while the Government Service Insurance System handled the savings of government workers. Less than a year after on 1 March 1979, Executive Order No. 527 was signed. The order directed transferring the administration of the Fund to the National Home Mortgage Finance Corporation, which was one of the operating agencies of the then Ministry of Human Settlements. Seeing the need to further strengthen the stability and viability of the two funds, Executive Order No. 38 was issued on 4 June 1979, merging the funds for private and government personnel into what is now known as the Pag-IBIG Fund. However, It was only on 14 December 1980 when Pag-IBIG was made independent from the NHMFC with the signing of PD 1752, which amended PD 1530. With the improved law in effect, the Funds rule-making power was vested in its own Board of Trustees. Likewise, PD 1752 made Pag-IBIG membership mandatory for all SSS and GSIS member-employees A new Administration, some changes in Pag-IBIG Months after former President Corazon C. Aquino assumed leadership of the country, Pag-IBIG contributions were suspended from May to July 1986. This gave way to the Presidential Task Force on Shelter to conduct a thorough review of the Fund and its operations. The task force later affirmed that Pag-IBIG Fund was run professionally and that there were no anomalies in the Fund. On 1 August 1986, former President Aquino directed the resumption of Pag-IBIG membership under Executive Order No. 35. Membership was still on a mandatory basis but under more liberal terms. For one, contribution rate was reduced from three percent to one percent for employees earning over P1,500. Employer share was likewise cut from three percent to a fixed rate of two percent. The Maximum Fund Salary was raised from P3,000 to P5,000. 1 January 1987 marked the return of the Pag-IBIG Fund to a voluntary program under Executive Order No. 90. While many companies chose to discontinue their Pag-IBIG membership, quite a number, including big companies like PLDT and Dole Philippines, nevertheless opted to retain their membership to the Fund despite the voluntary nature of registration. Facing challenges head on Confronted with the sudden reduction in its membership base, Pag-IBIG stood unfazed and took the challenges head on. As a first step, the Fund implemented an intensified marketing campaign that focused on membership retention and generation. It was during the years as a voluntary fund that Pag-IBIG evolved from an institution primarily for savings and housing into an agency with a wider reach that covers almost all other needs. Pag-IBIG introduced innovative benefit programs that heeded the calls for expansion of membership to include self-employed groups with informal income, overseas Filipino workers, and non-earning spouses. It also launched other novel programs such as the Multi-Purpose Loan for its short-term loans program, and shelter programs that address both individual and institutional housing requirements. Clearly, the voluntary nature of Pag-IBIG membership did not stop the Fund from growing in depth and breadth. During the period, the Pag-IBIG Fund has claimed its rightful place in the countrys economic and financial system, finally gaining the acceptance of its members, not by force, but by its continuing efforts to impress upon the members that the Fund exists solely for their benefit as well as their beneficiaries. After eight years as a voluntary fund, the nature of Pag-IBIG membership reverted to mandatory on 17 June 1994 when President Fidel V. Ramos signed Republic Act 7742. The new law became effective on 1 January 1995. Today, more than a decade after the universal Pag-IBIG coverage law was implemented, the Pag-IBIG Fund continues to be a strong partner in realizing Filipino workers dreams. Over the years, it initiated more programs and projects, particularly those that address the needs of members belonging to the bottom economic level. The Fund has established special housing partnerships with teachers and uniformed men, among others. The Rent-to-Own Program was introduced, providing members another affordable way of homeownership. The Funds efforts towards housing the Filipino did not go unnoticed. During the World Habitat Day celebration in October 2006, Pag-IBIG was given the prestigious Scroll of Honour Awards by the United Nations Human Settlements Program (UN-Habitat) for making the dream of affordable housing a reality for hundreds of thousands of households. Pag-IBIG is the first Philippine government agency to be awarded such recognition. The Fund likewise strengthened its partnership with accredited developers by way of its various institutional lending programs, among which is the much-sought after program for the development of medium and high-rise condominium buildings. The program provides a ready inventory of condominium units for sale at affordable prices, and allows members to experience condominium style living in areas close to their places of work. In recent years, the Fund has embarked on its successful bid in the financial market, moving a step closer to its vision of becoming a premier and globally competitive provident financial institution. In 2001, the Fund floated P2 billion-worth of Pag-IBIG Housing Bonds to generate additional funds for its shelter financing programs, which was warmly received by both institutional and individual investors. The bonds matured in late 2006. HDMF Law of 2009 Recognizing HDMFs contributions through the years and the need to further strengthen its capability as the biggest source of housing finance in the country to date, President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo signed into law Republic Act No. 9679 or the Home Development Mutual Fund Law of 2009. The law was signed on 21 July 2009. Under the new HDMF law, membership to the Pag-IBIG Fund is made mandatory for all SSS- and GSIS-covered employees; uniformed members of the AFP, BFP, BJMP and PNP; as well as Filipinos employed by foreign-based employers. Now more than ever, Filipino workers will enjoy the benefits that are available only to Pag-IBIG members. Likewise, the law grants the HDMF exemption from tax payments like other government provident institutions. With its tax-exempt status reinstated, Pag-IBIG will have more funds to finance housing and short-term loans as well as investments in government securities. Income from these endeavors is distributed exclusively to Pag-IBIG members in the form of dividends. The HDMF Law of 2009 also gives the Board of Trustees the authority to set the contribution rates, thereby paving the way for members to save more for their future. Similarly, this will bolster the Funds resources for home financing. Pag-IBIG is an acronym which stands for Pagtutulungan sa Kinabukasan: Ikaw, Bangko, Industria at Gobyerno. To this day, the Pag-IBIG Fund continues to harness these four sectors of the society to work together owards providing Fund members with adequate housing through an effective savings scheme. III. Summary of the OJT Experience ~.. I learned a lot from my experiences as an On-the-Job Trainee of PAG-IBIG fund, Therma Mobile Inc. First of all, I’m very much gratified for the support and understanding of my superiors especially on times when I committed mistakes. More than any learning thought in school, I learned to be with others, to work with p eople. Furthermore, I’m very grateful that they expose me so much on what I must know regarding the work which suits my course. I’m very thankful that they treat me like them and they trust me with my work. I appreciate so much the working environment I had with in the company because it helps me absorbed what I need to know.. The everyday experiences I had in this company are really most treasured. The knowledge I obtain here are beyond compare than any other experiences I acquired from school and supplementary learning from books. What I had here will always be with me and rest assured I will apply what I’ve in every circumstance that I will encounter.. IV. Assessment of the OJT A. New knowledge, attitudes, and skills acquired -the knowledge that I’ve acquired on my On-the-Job Training is to become more specific from what I am saying because lots of clients may not understand the things that you explain to them and. -the attitudes that I’ve learned on my On-the-Job Training is to become consistent from what I’m telling and become strong in every struggle that may come and always smile when you are communicating your client and lastly don’t let others tread your personality and tell them that you are and educated person. I improve my typing skills and communication skills and also my analyzation skills because lots of clients are telling that they are member of Pag-Ibig before but they don’t have their own Pag-Ibig ID Number and some clients having conflicts with their names, birthdays, birthplace and it may bother them in filing their loan. B. Theories actually seen in practice ~.. As a new entrants into the organization, I ve learned that new hires have always required extra organizational attention to develop the required level of competence. Regardless of academic background or previous work experience, the new hires should be aware of he organization’s policies, culture, and mission; understand the goals and requirements of their work area; and use specific areas of knowledge, skills, and attitudes to do their jobs. These are all areas of competence that the employee should develop. Recently, fewer organizations seem to be hiring large numbers of new hires. It might seem that employee competence would be affected less by this situation. However, recent hiring patterns have only complicated the matter. Instead of relying on permanent new hires.. C. Feedback that can be given to the company or institution ~.. Continuous Improvement Efforts that can changes in employee competence also occur as a result of continuous improvement efforts.. Whenever teams of employees get together to improve how the work is done, they often result in recommendations for change. These recommendations can involve the simplification of work, use of a new tool, eliminate redundant steps in work process, or some combination of them all. When these recommendations are enacted, changes in employee competence can be expected and also Multiskilling for them to continuous improvement process suggests ways of making work more ef? ient, it often means that employees responsibilities must broaden or that they must become more multiskilled.. D. Benefits gained The programme seeks to provide the following benefits for trainees: * Trainees are provided with job experience, an invaluable asset for achieving gainful employment. * Trainees are exposed to the numerous advantages that are associated with being employed. They earn an income through a stipend but they also become more familiar with interpersonal relationships, networking, responsibility and the importance of interdependence within the working environment. Trainees get an opportunity to prove themselves to an employer and, based on their work performance and the existence of vacancies within the organization, they  may  eventually be employed on a more permanent basis. For employers: * The cost of this mutually beneficial programme is borne jointly by the government and employers so that the full financial burden falls on neither party. * By actively supporting the programme, companies have realized improved public image through their commitment to the national good as well as their contribution to full employment and an improved quality of life for all. The Government and employers are stakeholders in creating a more job ready labour force. E. Problems encountered ~.. During ojt, first problem is that you have to get along with the employ ees and clients.. You have to know them better and give all your best to make them satisfied when it comes to their concerns and applications.. Just be yourself and theyll like you.. V. Appendices A. Company Brochure B. Copy of the Endorsement Letter To Whom It May Concern: I am writing to endorse to you Mr. Arce P. Baldonado, my previous employee. I was his manager in ABS Engineering Company for almost five years. I didn’t make a mistake in promoting her to mechanical engineer last term. She makes it a point that she submits good outputs that even exceed the requirements’ necessitated quality. Mr. Baldonado is an enthusiastic trainee. He can work well with other people and also individually. But he is really more of a leader than a follower. He can manage and supervise other trainees as well. Little or no supervision is needed when he is working. He has a reliable working habit that gives you the assurance that you can always count on him.. Mr. Baldonado is also good in management planning and implementing programs and techniques. He is also open and willing to learn new things. I assure you that hiring he will be a good decision as she is one of the best employees that I had. He could be an asset to your team and the whole organization as well. In cases of emergency, he is always willing to help.. Should you need more information, please feel free to contact me. Thank you very much and have a nice day. Sincerely, Febie Ann Management C. Copy of the Training Plan D. Copy of the signed Waiver form E. Daily Time Record F. Quarterly Performance Appraisal Forms G. Certificate of Completion

Family Dermestidae and Dermestid Beetles

Family Dermestidae and Dermestid Beetles The family Dermestidae includes skin or hide beetles, carpet beetles, and larder beetles, some of which can be serious pests of closets and pantries. The name dermestid comes from the Latin derma, for skin, and este, meaning to consume. Description Museum curators know dermestid beetles all too well. These scavengers have a reputation for devouring museum specimens. Dermestid beetles protein-eating habits make them equally valuable in museum settings, however, as colonies of dermestids can be used to clean the flesh and hair from bones and skulls. Many entomology students have encountered dermestids as pests, too, as theyre known for their rather bad habit of feeding on preserved insect specimens. Forensic entomologists look for dermestid beetles at crimes scenes when trying to determine the time of the death of a cadaver. Dermestids typically appear late in the decomposition process, when the corpse begins to dry out. Dermestid adults are quite small, ranging from just 2 mm to 12 mm in length. Their bodies are oval and convex in shape, and sometimes elongated. Dermestid beetles are covered in hair or scales, and bear clubbed antennae. Dermestids have chewing mouthparts. Dermestid beetle larvae are worm-like, and range in color from pale yellowish brown to light chestnut. Like the adult dermestids, the larvae are hairy, most noticeably near the hind end. The larvae of some species are oval, while others are tapered. Classification Kingdom – AnimaliaPhylum – ArthropodaClass – InsectaOrder – ColeopteraFamily - Dermestidae Diet Dermestid larvae can digest keratin, the structural proteins in the skin, hair, and other animal and human remains. Most feed on animal products, including leather, fur, hair, skin, wool, and even dairy products Some dermestid larvae prefer plant proteins and feed instead on nuts and seeds, or even silk and cotton. Most adult dermestid beetles feed on pollen. Because they can digest wool and silk, as well as plant products like cotton, dermestids can be a real nuisance in the home, where they may chew holes in sweaters and blankets. Life Cycle Like all beetles, dermestids undergo complete metamorphosis with four life stages: egg, larva, pupa, and adult. Dermestids vary greatly in the length of their life cycles, with some species going from egg to adult in 6 weeks, and others taking as long as a year or more to complete development. Females usually lay eggs in a dark crevice or other well-hidden location. Larvae molt through as many as 16 instars, feeding throughout the larval stage. After pupation, the adults emerge, ready to mate. Range and Distribution The cosmopolitan dermestid beetles live in varied habitats, provided theres a carcass or other food source available. Worldwide, scientists have described 1,000 species, with just over 120 known in North America. Sources: Borror and DeLongs Introduction to the Study of Insects, 7th Edition, by Charles A. Triplehown and Norman F. JohnsonKaufman Field Guide to Insects of North America, by Eric R. Eaton and Kenn KaufmanFamily Dermestidae, Bugguide.net, accessed November 25, 2011Dermestid Beetle, Texas AM AgriLife Extension, accessed November 25, 2011Dermestids, Utah State University Extension fact sheet

White collar and corporate crimes Research Paper

White collar and corporate crimes - Research Paper Example According to Edwin Sutherland, a researcher who studied the particular subject for many years, the term corporate crime is used for reflecting the ‘criminal activity of persons high social status and in the context of their profession’ (Sutherland 1939, cited in Simpson, 2002, p.6). From another point of view, white-collar crime has been related strictly to business, being considered as the violation of rules that regulate business activities, and not of rules related to other sectors (Geis, 2006, p.176). The specific issue has been considered as of critical importance due to the following fact: the recent financial crisis, of 2008, has severely affected economic activities worldwide. The crisis has been caused mostly because of the lack of effective control on the corporate governance practices of firms in the financial services sector. However, it has been made clear that many firms that controlled a major part of the global market were unable to monitor the activities of their CEO’s. In other words, white collar and corporate crimes had a key role in the crisis of 2008. ... The findings of the empirical research developed in regard to this subject verify the critical role of white collar and corporate crimes in social and economic life. According to Allen (2010) the increase of corruption, as related to the recent recession, has led to the radical increase of fraud, with a particular emphasis on collar crime (Allen, 2010). In 2009 about ‘160 cases of serious fraud were reported’ (Allen, 2010). These cases reveal the relationship between fraud and business activity. However, it seems that corruption can be also related to geography, as revealed in a report of Corporate Crime Reporter (2007) where reference is made to Louisiana, as the region with the highest level of corruption in USA. At this point, reference should be made to the following problem: there is no mechanism monitoring and managing the collection of data related to white collar and corporate crime. As a result, the exact level of damages caused because of white collar and corpo rate crime cannot be estimated (Center for Corporate Policy 2004). The above problem is highlighted in a report of the USA Department of Justice, involving in the years 2001-2006 (Center for Corporate Policy 2004). It is clear that corporate and white-collar crime is a complex phenomenon; its review would help to identify all its aspects and retrieve the measures that would help towards its limitation. References Allen, K. (2009, December 31). Recession pushes white-collar crime to new highs. The Guardian. Retrieved 2012, March 10 from: http://www.guardian.co.uk/business/2009/dec/31/fraud-recession-kpmg-report Benson, M. & Simpson, S. (2009). White-collar crime:

Reflection of my profit and ethics coursework Essay

Reflection of my profit and ethics coursework - Essay Example As the a starting point, the module topic on learning styles gave me an understanding of my personal learning style and technique. Before undertaking the module, I was not aware that each person possessed different learning styles. However, the topic on learning styles helped me to identify my dominant style of learning. To this end, I identified linguistic, logical, interpersonal and intrapersonal learning styles as my core strengths. In effect, these learning styles proved essential in my profit and ethics coursework. Foremost, the profit, and ethics coursework was a controversial module that sought to establish the efficacy of business and corporate social responsibility co-existing in harmony. Bearing this in mind, I discovered that my understanding of the topic would require an inquisitive interpersonal learning style with my course mates. Particularly when discussing the proponent and opponents of ethical responsibility of business, the sentiments advanced by my colleagues were hepful in the to synthesis and formulation of a personal premise on the issue. Evidently, the profit and ethics assignment entailed a research on whether the goal of profit and ethics can co-exist in a business. This assignment was in reflection to the ongoing dispute between UK dairy farmers with the processors and large chain supermarkets over fair pricing. Consequently, I was able to tap in on the intrapersonal learning style through personal research on articles that presented both sides of the issue from the dairy farmers, milk processors and supermarkets perspectives. After a thorough and analytical understanding of the issue, I commenced to present my premise for the case for ethical responsibility through fair pricing by the milk processors and supermarkets. Consequently, I incorporated the logical learning style based on evidence and intellectual reasoning. Throughout the text, my logical reasoning was based on the precinct that ethical responsibility

Competency Based Assessments in Education

Competency Based Assessments in Education Chapter 4 Literature Review on Competence-based Assessment 4.1 Introduction In this chapter, the researcher discusses the literature on competence-based assessment. The first part examines the purposes, the interpretations of competence-based assessment (CBA), the critical attributes of CBA and the issues related to competence. The second part looks into the implementation of CBA around the world and later focuses on the implementation of CBA in Malaysia. 4.2 Competence-based Assessment: An Overview The era of the knowledge -economy and globalisation requires not only individuals who possess a sound understanding of specific subject matter but also those who have relevant industry-related skills and interpersonal skills. These attributes and capabilities are necessary for learners to acquire in order to function well in todays complex and global societies (Baartman et al., 2007). Furthermore, acquisition of complex competences (Baartman et al., 2007) has to be developed in the future human capital through purposeful, effective, learner-centred and competence-based programmes (Baartman et al., 2007) in order to prepare students to meet the needs of tomorrows world. The report of the United States Department of Education Secretarys Commission on Achieving Necessary Skills, the so-called SCANS Report (McNabb, 1997), made clear that students must be ready to function in collaborative settings, interpret complex requirements, and exhibit self-directed, self-assessing behaviour on the job. This means that employers would want more from the graduates than just entry-level job skills which would help develop a nation progressively in accordance to its political and social needs. The relationship between learning and assessment (discussed in Chapters X and Y) means that assessment should take account of political and social purposes (Broadfoot, 1996). Different vocational and educational training programmes from school level to university level have been introduced to prepare and equip individuals to fit into the labour market. One such programme is Competency-Based Education (CBE) with the emphasis on assessment (competency-based assessment) being seen as key to the success of its implementation (Tillema et al, 2000; Frederiksen, 1984; Baartman et al., 2007). 4.2.1 Purposes of Competence-based Assessment Any forms of assessment s including CBA would usually have one or more of three basic purposes to diagnose learning;, to select students for particular provision; to certificate achievements (Carless et. al., 2006; Freeman Lewis, 1997; Ecclestone, 1996; Rowntree, 1987). CBA has been utilised by schools, training colleges and industriy for two main purposes; to measure competencies (McNerney Briggins, 1995) and to certificate (International Labour Organisation, 1996). 4.2.1.1 CBA for Measuring Competence Measuring competence is one of the main purposes of CBA.Generally, the reason for the implementation of CBA is to determine that learners have sufficient knowledge and skills to contribute effectively to the work force(Canning, 2000; Ecclestone, 1997; Kerka, 1998; LPM, 2002; McNabb, 1997). However,according to Hyland (1994), as competence-based education is found to be seriously flawed and ill-equipped to deal with education and training beyond the basic skills., CBA apparently could can be used to measure limited aspects of competence but Hyland (1994). He believes that its influence on training and education for future generations will be actively damaging as it could can only produce individuals who would function without much learning, knowledge and understanding of anything. He attributes this to a This is due to its highly instrumental philosophy thats combined with a narrow and uncritical behaviourist psychology. (Hyland, 1994). Thus, its qualifications resulting from CBA are viewed as basically reliable as indicators of all the most elementary skills and abilities (Armstrong, 1995). The issues of competence in CBA will be further discussed in section 4.4. 4.2.1.2 CBA for Certification It is asserted claimed that CBA provides learners with opportunities to achieve qualifications that relate to required performance in the workplace (Erridge Perry, 1994). Ecclestone (1997) indicates that NVQs, which primarily employ CBA, represent an explicit commitment to creating wider access to accreditation and better levels of achievement. She argues that Tthis could be made possible by severing links between attendance in learning programmes, and the formal assessment and accreditation of outcomes, and by promoting the accreditation of prior learning in which NVQs subsequently serve as serious challenge to traditional assessment approaches (Ecclestone, 1997). For instance, a trainee in a plumbing courseplumber would have the opportunities to acquire the necessary knowledge and skills in plumbing at certain level. He/she would then achieve the qualifications and certification that relate to the required performance of a plumber in the real life workplace once he/she has complet ed the assessment of at the at particular designated level. Nevertheless, CBA is at the same time, argued to be conceptually confusing, empirically flawed and lacking in meeting the needs of a learning society (Chappell, 1996; Ecclestone, 1997; Hyland, 1994;). This may be the results of the use of confusing language or jargons, the decreasing credibility of the competency standards on how they reflect industry standards (Kerka, 1998) and the indifferent implementation of CBA across the industries due to employers ignorance about the its nature and the purpose. of it (Hyland, 1996). 4.2.2 Definitions and Interpretations of CBA There is a wide range of interpretations and definitions given to CBA. In this discussion, CBA the interpretation of- CBA is looked atinterpreted in terms of three different aspects; the assessors roles, the learners responsibilities and the learning outcomes that are based on predetermined criteria. Figure ____tries to reflect the interedependence of these elements.The relationships of the interpretations of these three aspects are as shown in Figure ____. Adapted: Griffin Nix, 1991; Mcnerney Briggins, 1995; Hager, 1994; Elliot, 1994; Cotton, 1995; Ecclestone, 1996) In the assessors perspective, CBA consists of the simple process of seeing, collecting, gathering,and obtaining evidence, and the further process a more complex as well as subjective process of judging and interpreting the evidence of competence demonstrated by learners (Rowe, 1995; Ecclestone, 1996; Mcnerney Briggins, 1995; Hager, 1994; Griffin Nix, 1991). The assessors have to observe gather and judge the evidence of an individuals competence against the specified standards. This means that the assessors have to be very careful in their actions of gathering evidence of competence and they have to decide when it is considered sufficient, based on their expert judgment. For example, when a student successfully builds a drywall framework, the assessor has to gather evidence of competence not only from the product which is the framework but also from the process and the preparations before the student begins to work on it such as work schedule, list of materials and equipment to be u sed, and the like. The assessor then has to use his/her expertise in this area to determine whether or not the evidence of competence gathered is adequate to say that the student has acquired satisfactory competence in building the drywall framework. McNnerney Briggins (1995) state that CBA is the process of identifying the competencies which are the underlying characteristics that lead toof successful performance be this by may it be among a group of employees, typically by department, job category or hierarchical level. CThey say that a list of competencies that is tied to one corporate culture is usually used tobecome associatede with exemplary performance (McNerney Briggins, 1995)ers. They further relate CBA to its training basis where the focus is on who the successful performers are rather than on what people do. This means that it does not just include training in jobs which rely heavily on psychomotor skills, such as manual labour and traditional hourly production work but also involve performing decision-oriented jobs (Mcnerney Briggins, 1995). The Scottish Qualifications Authority (SQA) (2001) stresses the process of seeing whether or not an individual has the necessary skill and knowledge they need to be awarded a Scottish Vocational Qualifications as the key factor in CBA; emphsising the need for assessors to be expert . This undoubtedly requires the assessors to have even thorough knowledge and skills in the fields they are assessing in order to make good and fair judgments. This means is due to the fact that the athat assessors have to assess and collectconsider evidence of competence in terms of knowledge, abilities, skills and attitudes (Rowe, 1995; Ecclestone, 1996; Mcnerney Briggins, 1995) displayed diferentially in authentic contexts by learners in the context of a selected set of real life professional tasks which are of different levels (Hager, 1994). The process of gathering evidence from observable performance is later followed by the more difficult process of making judgment that may be very subjective (Pedd ie Wilmut, Macintosh, 1997). Despite the difficulty in making judgment based on evidence gathered, assessors have to determine whether or not the competency has been achieved by learners (Victoria Curriculum and Assesssment Authority (VCAA), 2001). It is the assessors responsibility, then, to decide if learners performances meet the pre-determined criteria. Thus, assessors have to equip themselves with relevant skills and use appropriate mechanisms in making fair judgments so that the problem of subjectivity among assessors is reduced. Furthermore, assessors have to assess learners ability to apply a particular knowledge, skills, attitudes and values in a specific context according to a required performance standards (New Zealand Qualifications Authority (NZQA), 2002). In other words, assessors themselves have to be extremely knowledgeable and skilful in the art of observing and collecting evidence of competence that come in various tangible and intangible forms. The process of gat hering evidence from observable performance is later followed by the more difficult process of making judgment that is inevitably very subjective (Peddie Wilmut, Macintosh, 1997). Despite the difficulty in making judgment based on evidence gathered, assessors still have to determine whether or not competency has been achieved by learners (Victoria Curriculum and Assesssment Authority (VCAA), 2001). It is the assessors responsibility then, to decide if learners are considered to be competent in a particular context at a particular level based on their performance whether or not it meets the pre-determined criteria. Thus, assessors have to equip themselves with relevant skills and use appropriate mechanisms in making fair judgments so that the problem of subjectivity among assessors is reduced. In addition to assessing and making judgment on students performance based on evidence gathered, assessors would also have to give constructive and supportive feedback to students on their performance and work (Ecclestone, 1996; Sadler, 2009). The assessors would have to point out the strengths and weaknesses as well as the improvements that could be made in the future (Sadler, 2009). Sadler (2009) further proposes that feedback should be given in a manner that would be able toenables educate students to assess and be able to evaluate their own work and give feedback to themselves as well. He suggests that students shcould be taught to monitor the quality of their productions and make adjustments as necessary while they are actually engaged in doing it. In From the learners point of view on the other handperspective, CBA is the platform for them to demonstrate competencies and learning outcomes (Elliot, 1994). These competencies will range from simple constructed responses to comprehensive collections of work over time in very different contexts.Elliot further asserts that CBA requires learners to demonstrate competencies and learning outcomes in performance assessment which vary in terms of simplicity and complexity such as from simple constructed responses to comprehensive collections of work over time, all of which are then judged . Learners are expected to be deeply involved in the assessment process and they areto be aware of the specified criteria that they have to meet as well as the standards of performance that are expected of them right from the beginning even before the assessment is conducted. Theoretically, tThis allows learners to take charge of and control over their own learning outcomes and success by preparing them selves well in advance. In other words, learners would have the autonomy for in their own learning, as CBA canould promote individuality and personal development (Ecclestone, 1996). The learners responsibility includes demostrating the It is also here in CBA that learners have to show their ability to apply theoretical knowledge and procedures, in addition to their understanding ofbeing able to describe the theories or even point to appropriate theoretical knowledge (Cotton, 1995). In demonstrating competence Cotton further elucidates that learners also have to express wise use of common sense in the public by demonstrating good physical, interpersonal and intrapersonal skills with mindful decision- making; that suggests the multiple intelligence described by Gardner (1985). In other words, learners have to demonstrate their abilities in all the three psychological domains of psychomotor, cognitive and affective learning (ANTA, 1998). Similarly, the Australias National Training Auth ority (ANTA) (1998) considers CBA to be a platform for learners to display their skills, knowledge and experience in accomplishing specific tasks as required in the workplace or to obtain a credit towards a qualification in the vocational and education training (VET). A Both the assessors and learners have one thing in common: to focus on and that is the set of learning outcomes that can be derived from an assessment. Learning outcomes cover diverse range of areas including personal qualities, various forms of knowledge and skills (Ecclestone, 1996). In this case it is the evidence of competence that learners have to demonstrate and which the assessors have to observe for and make judgments on, has to meet specified criteria. Thus, CBA consists of specified set of both the general and specific outcomes that assessors, learners and third parties can make reasonably objective judgments with respect to learners achievement or non-achievement of these outcomes (Wolf, 1995). CBA then certifies learners progress based on the demonstrated achievement of these outcomes while the assessments may not be necessarily tied to time served in formal educational settings. The emphasis is on the outcomes specifically, multiple outcomes, each distinctive and separ ately considered which should be specified clearly and as transparent as possible for assessors, assessees and third parties to understand what is being assessed and what should be achieved (Wolf, 1995) . This definition encapsulates the key-features of CBA as it has been developed and promoted for the vocational, technical and professional education and training in the UK while at the same time it signals the American origins of much of the debate (Wolf, 1995). The demonstrated performance that provides evidence of competence has to be at least of the minimum required quality in the real life workplace environment. These are the predetermined criteria set in CBA which are generally based on endorsed industry benchmark or competency standard (ANTA, 1998). The emphasis on outcomes and transparency is not only peculiar to the competence-context but it is also an essential characteristic of criterion-referenced assessment. The emphasis on what learners can actually do and the beneficia l effects of clear criteria on teaching and learning (Glaser, 1963; Popham, 1978) are argued to meet the competence-based literature where in England in the early years of the implementation of CBA, such system was referred to as criterion-referenced approach (Jessup 1991: 167). Jessup (1991) further underlines that what people actually learn from an education and training system and how effectively, as the key factor to measure its success. Thus, CBA is considered a criterion-referenced interpretation of assessment (Nuttall, 1984; Ling, 1999) where individuals are given an award after achieving the pre-determined standards (Cotton, 1995). This critical attribute of CBA will be discussed further in section 4.3.2. 4.3 Critical Attributes of Competence-based Assessment The following section discusses the two learning theories associated with CBA and the nature of its criterion-referenced assessment. 4.3.1 Learning Theories Associated with Competence-based Assessment Learning in the psychology and education contexts is a the process of acquiring knowledge, skills, and values, and world views acquisition and enhancement through ones integrated employment of cognitive, emotional, and experiences (Illeris, 2000; Ormorod, 1995). How this process works is explained variously. Learning as a process focuses on what happens when the learning takes place and the explanations of what happens constitute learning theories. In other words, learning theories are attempts to describe how people and animals learn, and they help uncover the inherently complex process of learning to our understanding. Hill (2002) explains that learning theories have two main values. The first is to provide adequate vocabulary and a conceptual framework in to interpreting examples of observed learning; and the second. Next is to suggest the right directions to look for solutions to practical problem instead of providing the solutions. Learning theories are therefore, the basis for any form of educational assessment (Gipps, 1994) and the theories most commonly associated to with CBA are the behaviourism and, more recently, the constructivism. These two theories will be discussed as CBA essentially involves observable aspects of learning and learning as a process for construction of new knowledge. Although the cognitive theory which looks beyond behaviour to explain brain-based learning is important, the need for it in CBA is not that apparent or crucial. Thus it is not included in the discussion. 4.3.1.1 Behaviourist Learning Theory Behaviourism is a theory of organism (may it be an animal or human) learning that only focuses on objectively observable behaviours and discounts mental activities (Murphy, 1999; Kerka, 1997; Doolittle Camp, 1999) with the assumption that a learner starts off as a clean slate (i.e. tabula rasa) and is essentially passive, responding to environmental stimuli (Murphy, 1999; Kerka, 1997) in the acquisition of new behaviour (Chowdhury, 2006). Learning according to the behaviourists takes place as the result of a response that follows on a specific stimulus and that behaviour is shaped through reinforcement (Kerka, 1997). By repeating the Stimulus-Response (S-R) cycle the learner is conditioned into repeating the response whenever the same stimulus is present and thusbehaviour can be modified and learning is measured by observable change in behaviour (Murphy, 1999; Kerka, 1997; Doolittle Camp, 1999). Theis emphasis on stimulus-response pairing (Murphy, 1999; Chowdhury, 2006) and the rejections to of structuralism (Kerka, 1997) reflected behaviourisms positivistic philosophical base, as the analysis of the human condition relies on only verifiable observations of behaviour and not on untenable mentalistic constructs (Kerka, 1997). Furthermore,Accordingly most human behaviour could can be understood as basic reflexive learning mechanisms or laws that operate on ones experience within the environment (Kerka, 1997). As the approach is seen to be more operational and practical in nature, it has dominated education.n, in which Tthe teacher disseminates selected knowledge, measures learners passive reception of facts, and focuses on behaviour control and task completion (Kerka, 1997). These views of the behaviourists and the learning characteristics that can be found in the education setting are summarised in Table___. Generally, conditioning has been identified in experiments by behaviourists to be a universal learning process. There are two different types of conditioning, each yielding a different behavioural pattern: Classic conditioning occurs when an instinctive reaction responds to a stimulus (Comer, 2004). Essentially, animals and people are biologically wired so that a certain stimulus will produce a specific response. As such, learning process takes place when two events that repeatedly occur close together in time are associated in a persons mind to impulsively produce the same response. The most popular example is Pavlovs observation that dogs salivate when they eat or even see food where food is unconditioned stimulus and the salivation, the unconditioned reflex (Comer, 2004; Chowdhury, 2006). Pavlovs theory of classical conditioning is considered a foundation of learning theories to the behaviourists. According to Pavlovs experiment, when some neutral stimulus, such as the ringing of a bell, is combined with the presentation of food and is repeated for a period of time, the dog salivates with the ringing of the bell, even though food is not given. Hence, the ringing of the bell acts as the conditioned stimulus while salivation is the conditioned response or reflex (Dembo: 1994). The result of this experiment led to the formation of Pavlovs classical conditioning in which an individual responds to some stimulus that would ordinarily produce such a response. Behavioural or operant conditioning occurs when a response to a stimulus is reinforced. Basically, operant conditioning is a simple feedback system: If a response to a stimulus is rewarded or reinforced, then the response is likely to take place in the future. Similarly, when a particular behaviour is rewarded, that behaviour is repeated as shown in the experiment conducted by B.F. Skinner using reinforcement techniques to teach pigeons to dance and bowl a ball. B.F. Skinner based his theory upon the idea that learning is a function of change in overt behaviour where these changes in behaviour are the result of an individuals response to events (stimuli) that occur in the environment (Chowdhury, 2006). According to Skinner, a reward or punishment will either strengthen or weaken a voluntary or automatic behaviour (Skinner: 1968). Ever since its introduction, the reinforced techniques have gone through series of enhancement and have contributed tremendously in training and teaching. The most important aspect of Skinners contribution to training is the significance attached to the desired behaviour to be emitted in certain environment. In order for the trainer to ensure the right behaviour is reinforced in the trainees, the trainer should have the clear idea about the terminal behaviour of the trainees, and should closely follow the trainees to appropriately reinforce correct responses. This is the purpose of programmed instructions including competence-based training in its early years of implementation which was based on this theory of reinforcement (Burns, 1995). . As the emerging learning theory of the early 1900s, behaviourism provided the final found ation for social efficiency as learning which is seen objectively consists of the formation of links between specific stimuli and responses through the application of rewards ( Wirth, 1972 ). The emphasis on the need of objectivity leads to extensive use of statistical and ma thematical analysis. Despite all the remarkable contribution s the learning theory has to offer , the extreme focus on objectivity has totally ignored the significant role the mind play in shaping ones behaviour. Men are treated more like robots or machines than human beings as their thoughts and feelings are not taken into consideration. They are expected to demonstrate desired behaviour through the use of reward and punishment neglecting other factors that may have an influence on the change in behaviour. Thus, the behaviourist theory of learning is lacking in utilizing the full potential of the mind in moulding essential behaviour and in constructing new knowledge . Assessment in Behaviourism Assessment, according to behaviourism, is a test (the stimulus) for which the answer (the response) is conditioned In accordance to the behaviourist learning theory which focuses on the stimulus-response cycle to attain observable conditioned behaviour, assessment in the behaviourism also applies the same concept. Thus, t he test item is the stimulus, the answer is the response and a learner has to be conditioned to produce the appropriate response to any given stimulus ( (Murphy, 1999; Kerka, 1997; Doolittle Camp, 1999). NSince the emphasis is on the response that is observable, no attention is paid to any model of the thinking process of the learner which might intervene between stimulus and response. Consequently, the distinctions between rote learning and learning with understanding is not considered as teaching is a matter deliveringof delivering the appropriate stimuli while learning is a matter of repeating the appropriate response, which will be rewarded. is what matters the most in which teaching is by repetition and then rewarding the appropriate responses. As such, a test composed of many short, atomised, out-of-context questions, and teaching to the test, are both consistent with this approach (Murphy, 1999; Kerka, 1997). Likewise, some forms of CBA which has always been associated to thewith behaviourist theory can be seen to assess, atomistically. applied the atomistic but not out of context approach. The assessor who is an observer ticks off a checklist of predetermined criteria whenever a learner has performed a series of discrete observable tasks. The criteria are the stimuli, the accomplished tasks the responses and learner has to be conditioned to demonstrate the ability to meet the criteria successfully. Although this approach to assessment may developstestify to learners ability to perform observable tasksbehaviours, it does not pay much attention to the theoretical knowledge and understanding (Ashworth, 1992) as the role of the mind is considered insignificant in delivering the required behaviour. While assessing competent observable performance is vital, assessing knowledge and understanding is just as important as it is an essential aspect of competence without which an assessment is lacking in credibility or construct validity (Ashworth, 1992). A valid assessment method should be able to measure what it is supposed to measure which in this case (Watson, 1994). Given the extensive discussion in Chapter ? on the idea of competence, both the observable performance behaviour and underpinning knowledge are aspects of competence that should be assessed and measured. People who understand are those who have clear mental representation of the situation with which they are confronted and are able to deal with it creatively and imaginatively using the acquired knowledge which acts as an interpretive resource for them (Ashworth, 1992). Thus, it is insufficient to assess ones competence just by looking at the performance while ignoring the aspect of knowledge and understanding. It is unfortunate then, if such an assessment method should produce people who are like robots in a factory; they couldwho can perform a job or a task efficiently and effectively but they do not have any understanding of what they were are doing. As the approachCBA also emphasises personal competence within competence concentrates on an individual demonstrating competent performance ((Wolf, 1995), traditional notions of CBA have allowed an and emphasises on personal competences, it leads to one being individualistic perspective whilst lacking ignoring the very necessary in the abability of being able to work as a team player to work as a team whereas team work is essential in performing relevan t aspect of a job in the actual workplace (Ashworth, 1992). As a result, theis behaviourist view of CBA has eventually shifted to the constructivist belief as discussed in the following section.weakened. Despite all the remarkable contributions the learning theory has to offer, the extreme focus on objectivity has totally ignored the significant role that the mind plays in influencing ones behaviour. People are treated more like robots or machines than human beings as their thoughts and feelings are not taken into consideration. They are expected to demonstrate desired behaviour through the use of reward and punishment neglecting other factors that may have an influence on the change in behaviour. 4.3.1.2 Constructivist Learning Theory Constructivism is a theory of learning that has roots in both philosophy and psychology (Doolitle Camp, 1999) founded on the premise that learners actively construct their own knowledge, meaning and understanding of the world they live in by reflecting on their experiences (Doolitle Camp, 1999; Murphy, 1999; Kerka, 1997). Learners learn by doing rather than observing and by bringing prior knowledge into a learning situation (Epstein Ryan, 2002; Carvin, date?) in which they must critique and re-evaluate their understanding of it until they can demonstrate their comprehension of the subject (Carvin). Furthermore, learners need to analyse and transform new information or problems in their minds based on existing knowledge and understanding where these abstract thoughts evolve from concrete action (Murphy, 1999). Learning, therefore, is simply the process of adjusting their mental models to accommodate new experiences. TBasically, the theory of constructivism rests on the notion that there is an innate human drive to make sense of the world by building cognitive structures which include declarative knowledge (know that facts, concepts, propositions) and procedural knowledge (know how techniques, skills, and abilities) (Murphy, 1999). These two components of knowledge have been discussed in depth in Chapter 3. Moreover, learning is a matter of personal and unique interpretation which takes place within the social context and is of useful to the learner as intrinsic motivation emerges from the desire to understand and to construct meaning (Billet, 1996). However, dispositions such as attitudes, values and interests that help learners decide, are often neglected in this theory (Murphy, 1999) making it incomprehensive and insufficient in a way. Philosophically, the essence of constructivism relies on an epistemology that stresses subjectivism and relativism, where personally unique reality resulted from the concept that reality can be known through experience although it may exist separate from experience (Doolitle Camp, 1999). Hence came four essential epistemological tenets of constructivism (Von Glasersfeld ,1984; 1998; Doolitle Camp, 1999); Knowledge is the result of active cognizing by the individual ; Cognition is an adaptive process that functions to make an individuals behaviour more viable given a particular environment; Cognition organizes and makes sense of ones experience, and is not a process to render an accurate representation of reality; and Knowing has roots both in biological/neurological construction, and in social, cultural, and language-based interactions (Dewey, 1916/1980; Garrison, 1997; Larochelle, Bednarz, Garrison, 1998; Gergen, 1995). Thus, constructivism acknowledges the active role learners play in the personal creation of knowledge, the importance of both the individual and social experiences in this knowledge creatio Competency Based Assessments in Education Competency Based Assessments in Education Chapter 4 Literature Review on Competence-based Assessment 4.1 Introduction In this chapter, the researcher discusses the literature on competence-based assessment. The first part examines the purposes, the interpretations of competence-based assessment (CBA), the critical attributes of CBA and the issues related to competence. The second part looks into the implementation of CBA around the world and later focuses on the implementation of CBA in Malaysia. 4.2 Competence-based Assessment: An Overview The era of the knowledge -economy and globalisation requires not only individuals who possess a sound understanding of specific subject matter but also those who have relevant industry-related skills and interpersonal skills. These attributes and capabilities are necessary for learners to acquire in order to function well in todays complex and global societies (Baartman et al., 2007). Furthermore, acquisition of complex competences (Baartman et al., 2007) has to be developed in the future human capital through purposeful, effective, learner-centred and competence-based programmes (Baartman et al., 2007) in order to prepare students to meet the needs of tomorrows world. The report of the United States Department of Education Secretarys Commission on Achieving Necessary Skills, the so-called SCANS Report (McNabb, 1997), made clear that students must be ready to function in collaborative settings, interpret complex requirements, and exhibit self-directed, self-assessing behaviour on the job. This means that employers would want more from the graduates than just entry-level job skills which would help develop a nation progressively in accordance to its political and social needs. The relationship between learning and assessment (discussed in Chapters X and Y) means that assessment should take account of political and social purposes (Broadfoot, 1996). Different vocational and educational training programmes from school level to university level have been introduced to prepare and equip individuals to fit into the labour market. One such programme is Competency-Based Education (CBE) with the emphasis on assessment (competency-based assessment) being seen as key to the success of its implementation (Tillema et al, 2000; Frederiksen, 1984; Baartman et al., 2007). 4.2.1 Purposes of Competence-based Assessment Any forms of assessment s including CBA would usually have one or more of three basic purposes to diagnose learning;, to select students for particular provision; to certificate achievements (Carless et. al., 2006; Freeman Lewis, 1997; Ecclestone, 1996; Rowntree, 1987). CBA has been utilised by schools, training colleges and industriy for two main purposes; to measure competencies (McNerney Briggins, 1995) and to certificate (International Labour Organisation, 1996). 4.2.1.1 CBA for Measuring Competence Measuring competence is one of the main purposes of CBA.Generally, the reason for the implementation of CBA is to determine that learners have sufficient knowledge and skills to contribute effectively to the work force(Canning, 2000; Ecclestone, 1997; Kerka, 1998; LPM, 2002; McNabb, 1997). However,according to Hyland (1994), as competence-based education is found to be seriously flawed and ill-equipped to deal with education and training beyond the basic skills., CBA apparently could can be used to measure limited aspects of competence but Hyland (1994). He believes that its influence on training and education for future generations will be actively damaging as it could can only produce individuals who would function without much learning, knowledge and understanding of anything. He attributes this to a This is due to its highly instrumental philosophy thats combined with a narrow and uncritical behaviourist psychology. (Hyland, 1994). Thus, its qualifications resulting from CBA are viewed as basically reliable as indicators of all the most elementary skills and abilities (Armstrong, 1995). The issues of competence in CBA will be further discussed in section 4.4. 4.2.1.2 CBA for Certification It is asserted claimed that CBA provides learners with opportunities to achieve qualifications that relate to required performance in the workplace (Erridge Perry, 1994). Ecclestone (1997) indicates that NVQs, which primarily employ CBA, represent an explicit commitment to creating wider access to accreditation and better levels of achievement. She argues that Tthis could be made possible by severing links between attendance in learning programmes, and the formal assessment and accreditation of outcomes, and by promoting the accreditation of prior learning in which NVQs subsequently serve as serious challenge to traditional assessment approaches (Ecclestone, 1997). For instance, a trainee in a plumbing courseplumber would have the opportunities to acquire the necessary knowledge and skills in plumbing at certain level. He/she would then achieve the qualifications and certification that relate to the required performance of a plumber in the real life workplace once he/she has complet ed the assessment of at the at particular designated level. Nevertheless, CBA is at the same time, argued to be conceptually confusing, empirically flawed and lacking in meeting the needs of a learning society (Chappell, 1996; Ecclestone, 1997; Hyland, 1994;). This may be the results of the use of confusing language or jargons, the decreasing credibility of the competency standards on how they reflect industry standards (Kerka, 1998) and the indifferent implementation of CBA across the industries due to employers ignorance about the its nature and the purpose. of it (Hyland, 1996). 4.2.2 Definitions and Interpretations of CBA There is a wide range of interpretations and definitions given to CBA. In this discussion, CBA the interpretation of- CBA is looked atinterpreted in terms of three different aspects; the assessors roles, the learners responsibilities and the learning outcomes that are based on predetermined criteria. Figure ____tries to reflect the interedependence of these elements.The relationships of the interpretations of these three aspects are as shown in Figure ____. Adapted: Griffin Nix, 1991; Mcnerney Briggins, 1995; Hager, 1994; Elliot, 1994; Cotton, 1995; Ecclestone, 1996) In the assessors perspective, CBA consists of the simple process of seeing, collecting, gathering,and obtaining evidence, and the further process a more complex as well as subjective process of judging and interpreting the evidence of competence demonstrated by learners (Rowe, 1995; Ecclestone, 1996; Mcnerney Briggins, 1995; Hager, 1994; Griffin Nix, 1991). The assessors have to observe gather and judge the evidence of an individuals competence against the specified standards. This means that the assessors have to be very careful in their actions of gathering evidence of competence and they have to decide when it is considered sufficient, based on their expert judgment. For example, when a student successfully builds a drywall framework, the assessor has to gather evidence of competence not only from the product which is the framework but also from the process and the preparations before the student begins to work on it such as work schedule, list of materials and equipment to be u sed, and the like. The assessor then has to use his/her expertise in this area to determine whether or not the evidence of competence gathered is adequate to say that the student has acquired satisfactory competence in building the drywall framework. McNnerney Briggins (1995) state that CBA is the process of identifying the competencies which are the underlying characteristics that lead toof successful performance be this by may it be among a group of employees, typically by department, job category or hierarchical level. CThey say that a list of competencies that is tied to one corporate culture is usually used tobecome associatede with exemplary performance (McNerney Briggins, 1995)ers. They further relate CBA to its training basis where the focus is on who the successful performers are rather than on what people do. This means that it does not just include training in jobs which rely heavily on psychomotor skills, such as manual labour and traditional hourly production work but also involve performing decision-oriented jobs (Mcnerney Briggins, 1995). The Scottish Qualifications Authority (SQA) (2001) stresses the process of seeing whether or not an individual has the necessary skill and knowledge they need to be awarded a Scottish Vocational Qualifications as the key factor in CBA; emphsising the need for assessors to be expert . This undoubtedly requires the assessors to have even thorough knowledge and skills in the fields they are assessing in order to make good and fair judgments. This means is due to the fact that the athat assessors have to assess and collectconsider evidence of competence in terms of knowledge, abilities, skills and attitudes (Rowe, 1995; Ecclestone, 1996; Mcnerney Briggins, 1995) displayed diferentially in authentic contexts by learners in the context of a selected set of real life professional tasks which are of different levels (Hager, 1994). The process of gathering evidence from observable performance is later followed by the more difficult process of making judgment that may be very subjective (Pedd ie Wilmut, Macintosh, 1997). Despite the difficulty in making judgment based on evidence gathered, assessors have to determine whether or not the competency has been achieved by learners (Victoria Curriculum and Assesssment Authority (VCAA), 2001). It is the assessors responsibility, then, to decide if learners performances meet the pre-determined criteria. Thus, assessors have to equip themselves with relevant skills and use appropriate mechanisms in making fair judgments so that the problem of subjectivity among assessors is reduced. Furthermore, assessors have to assess learners ability to apply a particular knowledge, skills, attitudes and values in a specific context according to a required performance standards (New Zealand Qualifications Authority (NZQA), 2002). In other words, assessors themselves have to be extremely knowledgeable and skilful in the art of observing and collecting evidence of competence that come in various tangible and intangible forms. The process of gat hering evidence from observable performance is later followed by the more difficult process of making judgment that is inevitably very subjective (Peddie Wilmut, Macintosh, 1997). Despite the difficulty in making judgment based on evidence gathered, assessors still have to determine whether or not competency has been achieved by learners (Victoria Curriculum and Assesssment Authority (VCAA), 2001). It is the assessors responsibility then, to decide if learners are considered to be competent in a particular context at a particular level based on their performance whether or not it meets the pre-determined criteria. Thus, assessors have to equip themselves with relevant skills and use appropriate mechanisms in making fair judgments so that the problem of subjectivity among assessors is reduced. In addition to assessing and making judgment on students performance based on evidence gathered, assessors would also have to give constructive and supportive feedback to students on their performance and work (Ecclestone, 1996; Sadler, 2009). The assessors would have to point out the strengths and weaknesses as well as the improvements that could be made in the future (Sadler, 2009). Sadler (2009) further proposes that feedback should be given in a manner that would be able toenables educate students to assess and be able to evaluate their own work and give feedback to themselves as well. He suggests that students shcould be taught to monitor the quality of their productions and make adjustments as necessary while they are actually engaged in doing it. In From the learners point of view on the other handperspective, CBA is the platform for them to demonstrate competencies and learning outcomes (Elliot, 1994). These competencies will range from simple constructed responses to comprehensive collections of work over time in very different contexts.Elliot further asserts that CBA requires learners to demonstrate competencies and learning outcomes in performance assessment which vary in terms of simplicity and complexity such as from simple constructed responses to comprehensive collections of work over time, all of which are then judged . Learners are expected to be deeply involved in the assessment process and they areto be aware of the specified criteria that they have to meet as well as the standards of performance that are expected of them right from the beginning even before the assessment is conducted. Theoretically, tThis allows learners to take charge of and control over their own learning outcomes and success by preparing them selves well in advance. In other words, learners would have the autonomy for in their own learning, as CBA canould promote individuality and personal development (Ecclestone, 1996). The learners responsibility includes demostrating the It is also here in CBA that learners have to show their ability to apply theoretical knowledge and procedures, in addition to their understanding ofbeing able to describe the theories or even point to appropriate theoretical knowledge (Cotton, 1995). In demonstrating competence Cotton further elucidates that learners also have to express wise use of common sense in the public by demonstrating good physical, interpersonal and intrapersonal skills with mindful decision- making; that suggests the multiple intelligence described by Gardner (1985). In other words, learners have to demonstrate their abilities in all the three psychological domains of psychomotor, cognitive and affective learning (ANTA, 1998). Similarly, the Australias National Training Auth ority (ANTA) (1998) considers CBA to be a platform for learners to display their skills, knowledge and experience in accomplishing specific tasks as required in the workplace or to obtain a credit towards a qualification in the vocational and education training (VET). A Both the assessors and learners have one thing in common: to focus on and that is the set of learning outcomes that can be derived from an assessment. Learning outcomes cover diverse range of areas including personal qualities, various forms of knowledge and skills (Ecclestone, 1996). In this case it is the evidence of competence that learners have to demonstrate and which the assessors have to observe for and make judgments on, has to meet specified criteria. Thus, CBA consists of specified set of both the general and specific outcomes that assessors, learners and third parties can make reasonably objective judgments with respect to learners achievement or non-achievement of these outcomes (Wolf, 1995). CBA then certifies learners progress based on the demonstrated achievement of these outcomes while the assessments may not be necessarily tied to time served in formal educational settings. The emphasis is on the outcomes specifically, multiple outcomes, each distinctive and separ ately considered which should be specified clearly and as transparent as possible for assessors, assessees and third parties to understand what is being assessed and what should be achieved (Wolf, 1995) . This definition encapsulates the key-features of CBA as it has been developed and promoted for the vocational, technical and professional education and training in the UK while at the same time it signals the American origins of much of the debate (Wolf, 1995). The demonstrated performance that provides evidence of competence has to be at least of the minimum required quality in the real life workplace environment. These are the predetermined criteria set in CBA which are generally based on endorsed industry benchmark or competency standard (ANTA, 1998). The emphasis on outcomes and transparency is not only peculiar to the competence-context but it is also an essential characteristic of criterion-referenced assessment. The emphasis on what learners can actually do and the beneficia l effects of clear criteria on teaching and learning (Glaser, 1963; Popham, 1978) are argued to meet the competence-based literature where in England in the early years of the implementation of CBA, such system was referred to as criterion-referenced approach (Jessup 1991: 167). Jessup (1991) further underlines that what people actually learn from an education and training system and how effectively, as the key factor to measure its success. Thus, CBA is considered a criterion-referenced interpretation of assessment (Nuttall, 1984; Ling, 1999) where individuals are given an award after achieving the pre-determined standards (Cotton, 1995). This critical attribute of CBA will be discussed further in section 4.3.2. 4.3 Critical Attributes of Competence-based Assessment The following section discusses the two learning theories associated with CBA and the nature of its criterion-referenced assessment. 4.3.1 Learning Theories Associated with Competence-based Assessment Learning in the psychology and education contexts is a the process of acquiring knowledge, skills, and values, and world views acquisition and enhancement through ones integrated employment of cognitive, emotional, and experiences (Illeris, 2000; Ormorod, 1995). How this process works is explained variously. Learning as a process focuses on what happens when the learning takes place and the explanations of what happens constitute learning theories. In other words, learning theories are attempts to describe how people and animals learn, and they help uncover the inherently complex process of learning to our understanding. Hill (2002) explains that learning theories have two main values. The first is to provide adequate vocabulary and a conceptual framework in to interpreting examples of observed learning; and the second. Next is to suggest the right directions to look for solutions to practical problem instead of providing the solutions. Learning theories are therefore, the basis for any form of educational assessment (Gipps, 1994) and the theories most commonly associated to with CBA are the behaviourism and, more recently, the constructivism. These two theories will be discussed as CBA essentially involves observable aspects of learning and learning as a process for construction of new knowledge. Although the cognitive theory which looks beyond behaviour to explain brain-based learning is important, the need for it in CBA is not that apparent or crucial. Thus it is not included in the discussion. 4.3.1.1 Behaviourist Learning Theory Behaviourism is a theory of organism (may it be an animal or human) learning that only focuses on objectively observable behaviours and discounts mental activities (Murphy, 1999; Kerka, 1997; Doolittle Camp, 1999) with the assumption that a learner starts off as a clean slate (i.e. tabula rasa) and is essentially passive, responding to environmental stimuli (Murphy, 1999; Kerka, 1997) in the acquisition of new behaviour (Chowdhury, 2006). Learning according to the behaviourists takes place as the result of a response that follows on a specific stimulus and that behaviour is shaped through reinforcement (Kerka, 1997). By repeating the Stimulus-Response (S-R) cycle the learner is conditioned into repeating the response whenever the same stimulus is present and thusbehaviour can be modified and learning is measured by observable change in behaviour (Murphy, 1999; Kerka, 1997; Doolittle Camp, 1999). Theis emphasis on stimulus-response pairing (Murphy, 1999; Chowdhury, 2006) and the rejections to of structuralism (Kerka, 1997) reflected behaviourisms positivistic philosophical base, as the analysis of the human condition relies on only verifiable observations of behaviour and not on untenable mentalistic constructs (Kerka, 1997). Furthermore,Accordingly most human behaviour could can be understood as basic reflexive learning mechanisms or laws that operate on ones experience within the environment (Kerka, 1997). As the approach is seen to be more operational and practical in nature, it has dominated education.n, in which Tthe teacher disseminates selected knowledge, measures learners passive reception of facts, and focuses on behaviour control and task completion (Kerka, 1997). These views of the behaviourists and the learning characteristics that can be found in the education setting are summarised in Table___. Generally, conditioning has been identified in experiments by behaviourists to be a universal learning process. There are two different types of conditioning, each yielding a different behavioural pattern: Classic conditioning occurs when an instinctive reaction responds to a stimulus (Comer, 2004). Essentially, animals and people are biologically wired so that a certain stimulus will produce a specific response. As such, learning process takes place when two events that repeatedly occur close together in time are associated in a persons mind to impulsively produce the same response. The most popular example is Pavlovs observation that dogs salivate when they eat or even see food where food is unconditioned stimulus and the salivation, the unconditioned reflex (Comer, 2004; Chowdhury, 2006). Pavlovs theory of classical conditioning is considered a foundation of learning theories to the behaviourists. According to Pavlovs experiment, when some neutral stimulus, such as the ringing of a bell, is combined with the presentation of food and is repeated for a period of time, the dog salivates with the ringing of the bell, even though food is not given. Hence, the ringing of the bell acts as the conditioned stimulus while salivation is the conditioned response or reflex (Dembo: 1994). The result of this experiment led to the formation of Pavlovs classical conditioning in which an individual responds to some stimulus that would ordinarily produce such a response. Behavioural or operant conditioning occurs when a response to a stimulus is reinforced. Basically, operant conditioning is a simple feedback system: If a response to a stimulus is rewarded or reinforced, then the response is likely to take place in the future. Similarly, when a particular behaviour is rewarded, that behaviour is repeated as shown in the experiment conducted by B.F. Skinner using reinforcement techniques to teach pigeons to dance and bowl a ball. B.F. Skinner based his theory upon the idea that learning is a function of change in overt behaviour where these changes in behaviour are the result of an individuals response to events (stimuli) that occur in the environment (Chowdhury, 2006). According to Skinner, a reward or punishment will either strengthen or weaken a voluntary or automatic behaviour (Skinner: 1968). Ever since its introduction, the reinforced techniques have gone through series of enhancement and have contributed tremendously in training and teaching. The most important aspect of Skinners contribution to training is the significance attached to the desired behaviour to be emitted in certain environment. In order for the trainer to ensure the right behaviour is reinforced in the trainees, the trainer should have the clear idea about the terminal behaviour of the trainees, and should closely follow the trainees to appropriately reinforce correct responses. This is the purpose of programmed instructions including competence-based training in its early years of implementation which was based on this theory of reinforcement (Burns, 1995). . As the emerging learning theory of the early 1900s, behaviourism provided the final found ation for social efficiency as learning which is seen objectively consists of the formation of links between specific stimuli and responses through the application of rewards ( Wirth, 1972 ). The emphasis on the need of objectivity leads to extensive use of statistical and ma thematical analysis. Despite all the remarkable contribution s the learning theory has to offer , the extreme focus on objectivity has totally ignored the significant role the mind play in shaping ones behaviour. Men are treated more like robots or machines than human beings as their thoughts and feelings are not taken into consideration. They are expected to demonstrate desired behaviour through the use of reward and punishment neglecting other factors that may have an influence on the change in behaviour. Thus, the behaviourist theory of learning is lacking in utilizing the full potential of the mind in moulding essential behaviour and in constructing new knowledge . Assessment in Behaviourism Assessment, according to behaviourism, is a test (the stimulus) for which the answer (the response) is conditioned In accordance to the behaviourist learning theory which focuses on the stimulus-response cycle to attain observable conditioned behaviour, assessment in the behaviourism also applies the same concept. Thus, t he test item is the stimulus, the answer is the response and a learner has to be conditioned to produce the appropriate response to any given stimulus ( (Murphy, 1999; Kerka, 1997; Doolittle Camp, 1999). NSince the emphasis is on the response that is observable, no attention is paid to any model of the thinking process of the learner which might intervene between stimulus and response. Consequently, the distinctions between rote learning and learning with understanding is not considered as teaching is a matter deliveringof delivering the appropriate stimuli while learning is a matter of repeating the appropriate response, which will be rewarded. is what matters the most in which teaching is by repetition and then rewarding the appropriate responses. As such, a test composed of many short, atomised, out-of-context questions, and teaching to the test, are both consistent with this approach (Murphy, 1999; Kerka, 1997). Likewise, some forms of CBA which has always been associated to thewith behaviourist theory can be seen to assess, atomistically. applied the atomistic but not out of context approach. The assessor who is an observer ticks off a checklist of predetermined criteria whenever a learner has performed a series of discrete observable tasks. The criteria are the stimuli, the accomplished tasks the responses and learner has to be conditioned to demonstrate the ability to meet the criteria successfully. Although this approach to assessment may developstestify to learners ability to perform observable tasksbehaviours, it does not pay much attention to the theoretical knowledge and understanding (Ashworth, 1992) as the role of the mind is considered insignificant in delivering the required behaviour. While assessing competent observable performance is vital, assessing knowledge and understanding is just as important as it is an essential aspect of competence without which an assessment is lacking in credibility or construct validity (Ashworth, 1992). A valid assessment method should be able to measure what it is supposed to measure which in this case (Watson, 1994). Given the extensive discussion in Chapter ? on the idea of competence, both the observable performance behaviour and underpinning knowledge are aspects of competence that should be assessed and measured. People who understand are those who have clear mental representation of the situation with which they are confronted and are able to deal with it creatively and imaginatively using the acquired knowledge which acts as an interpretive resource for them (Ashworth, 1992). Thus, it is insufficient to assess ones competence just by looking at the performance while ignoring the aspect of knowledge and understanding. It is unfortunate then, if such an assessment method should produce people who are like robots in a factory; they couldwho can perform a job or a task efficiently and effectively but they do not have any understanding of what they were are doing. As the approachCBA also emphasises personal competence within competence concentrates on an individual demonstrating competent performance ((Wolf, 1995), traditional notions of CBA have allowed an and emphasises on personal competences, it leads to one being individualistic perspective whilst lacking ignoring the very necessary in the abability of being able to work as a team player to work as a team whereas team work is essential in performing relevan t aspect of a job in the actual workplace (Ashworth, 1992). As a result, theis behaviourist view of CBA has eventually shifted to the constructivist belief as discussed in the following section.weakened. Despite all the remarkable contributions the learning theory has to offer, the extreme focus on objectivity has totally ignored the significant role that the mind plays in influencing ones behaviour. People are treated more like robots or machines than human beings as their thoughts and feelings are not taken into consideration. They are expected to demonstrate desired behaviour through the use of reward and punishment neglecting other factors that may have an influence on the change in behaviour. 4.3.1.2 Constructivist Learning Theory Constructivism is a theory of learning that has roots in both philosophy and psychology (Doolitle Camp, 1999) founded on the premise that learners actively construct their own knowledge, meaning and understanding of the world they live in by reflecting on their experiences (Doolitle Camp, 1999; Murphy, 1999; Kerka, 1997). Learners learn by doing rather than observing and by bringing prior knowledge into a learning situation (Epstein Ryan, 2002; Carvin, date?) in which they must critique and re-evaluate their understanding of it until they can demonstrate their comprehension of the subject (Carvin). Furthermore, learners need to analyse and transform new information or problems in their minds based on existing knowledge and understanding where these abstract thoughts evolve from concrete action (Murphy, 1999). Learning, therefore, is simply the process of adjusting their mental models to accommodate new experiences. TBasically, the theory of constructivism rests on the notion that there is an innate human drive to make sense of the world by building cognitive structures which include declarative knowledge (know that facts, concepts, propositions) and procedural knowledge (know how techniques, skills, and abilities) (Murphy, 1999). These two components of knowledge have been discussed in depth in Chapter 3. Moreover, learning is a matter of personal and unique interpretation which takes place within the social context and is of useful to the learner as intrinsic motivation emerges from the desire to understand and to construct meaning (Billet, 1996). However, dispositions such as attitudes, values and interests that help learners decide, are often neglected in this theory (Murphy, 1999) making it incomprehensive and insufficient in a way. Philosophically, the essence of constructivism relies on an epistemology that stresses subjectivism and relativism, where personally unique reality resulted from the concept that reality can be known through experience although it may exist separate from experience (Doolitle Camp, 1999). Hence came four essential epistemological tenets of constructivism (Von Glasersfeld ,1984; 1998; Doolitle Camp, 1999); Knowledge is the result of active cognizing by the individual ; Cognition is an adaptive process that functions to make an individuals behaviour more viable given a particular environment; Cognition organizes and makes sense of ones experience, and is not a process to render an accurate representation of reality; and Knowing has roots both in biological/neurological construction, and in social, cultural, and language-based interactions (Dewey, 1916/1980; Garrison, 1997; Larochelle, Bednarz, Garrison, 1998; Gergen, 1995). Thus, constructivism acknowledges the active role learners play in the personal creation of knowledge, the importance of both the individual and social experiences in this knowledge creatio